Dynamics of Educational Disparities in Nepal: Index-Based District Analysis across Three Census Years (2001-2021)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22399/ijcesen.4493Keywords:
Educational disparity, Education Development Index (EDI), Factor Analysis, Principal Component Analysis, Regional inequalityAbstract
This research develops an Education Development Index aimed at assessing and comparing educational advancement across various districts in Nepal from 2001 to 2021, highlighting trends and progress throughout this period. The EDI consists of fifteen indicators organized into four sub-domains: access, participation, quality, and achievement. It employs Principal Component Analysis and Factor Analysis to standardize and weight the indicators, with validation provided by KMO and Bartlett’s tests. Districts are classified into four distinct levels of development: highly developed, developed, backward, and highly backward.
The findings reveal a steady enhancement in the educational landscape across the nation, marked by rising literacy rates and an increase in the number of years individuals spend in school. Nonetheless, this advancement is marked by significant disparities. Urban centers such as Kathmandu and Lalitpur consistently demonstrate elevated EDI scores, whereas remote hill districts including Jumla, Manang, Humla, Bajhang, and Darchula have experienced significant advancements, with some transitioning from underdeveloped to highly developed status. On the other hand, certain Terai districts such as Bara, Mahottari, Kapilvastu, Banke, Kailali, and Rautahat have shown a lack of educational advancement or even a decline, underscoring the ongoing structural challenges that hinder progress. A notable observation is the evolution of educational priorities: shifting from the fundamental issues of access and participation in 2001 to a focus on institutional quality, efficiency, and learning outcomes by 2021. This change indicates a movement towards comprehensive improvement rather than simply broadening access to education. The EDI establishes a comprehensive framework for monitoring disparities, supplying essential evidence that can inform targeted policies and promote more equitable educational development across regions.
References
Acharya, K., Rahman, M. S., Islam, M. R., Gilmour, S., Dhungel, B., Parajuli, R. P., Nishimura, T., Senju, A., & Tsuchiya, K. J. (2023). Socioeconomic and education-based inequality in suspected developmental delays among Nepalese children: A subnational level assessment. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 4750. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31629-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31629-1
Agénor, P. (2007). Fiscal policy and endogenous growth with public infrastructure. Oxford Economic Papers, 60(1), 57–87. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpm018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpm018
Angdembe, M. R., Dulal, B. P., Bhattarai, K., & Karn, S. (2019). Trends and predictors of inequality in childhood stunting in Nepal from 1996 to 2016. International Journal for Equity in Health, 18(1), 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-019-0944-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-019-0944-z
Asadullah, M. N., Savoia, A., & Sen, K. (2019). Will South Asia achieve the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030? Learning from the MDGs experience. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3437775 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3437775
Bhandari, R. (2018). Early childhood education and development in Nepal: Access, quality and professionalism. Prima Educatione, 1, 129–141. https://doi.org/10.17951/pe.2017.1.129 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17951/pe.2017.1.129
Bhattarai, P. C., Shrestha, M., & Paudel, P. K. (2023). Measuring multi-dimensional disparity index: A case of Nepal. PLOS ONE, 18(10), e0286216. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286216 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286216
University Grants Commission. (2002). Education management information system report on higher education 2001/02. University Grants Commission.
University Grants Commission. (2012). Education management information system report on higher education 2011/12. University Grants Commission.
University Grants Commission. (2022). Education management information system report on higher education 2021/22. University Grants Commission.
Devkota, S., Ghimire, S., & Upadhyay, M. P. (2021). What factors in Nepal account for the rural–urban discrepancy in human capital? Evidence from household survey data. Economies, 9(2), 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies9020083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/economies9020083
Dündar, H., Béteille, T., Riboud, M., & Deolalikar, A. B. (2014). Student learning in South Asia: Challenges, opportunities, and policy priorities. World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0160-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0160-0
Ministry of Education. (2002). School level educational statistics of Nepal 2001/02. Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Education. (2012). Flash report 2011. Government of Nepal.
Ministry of Education. (2022). Flash report 2021. Government of Nepal.
Halder, A., Datta, L., & Santra, P. (2021). Regional disparity in educational development in Murshidabad District, West Bengal. Research Review International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 6(1), 140–147. https://doi.org/10.31305/rrijm.2021.v06.i01.028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31305/rrijm.2021.v06.i01.028
Hooda, E., Hooda, B. K., & Manocha, V. (2017). Dynamics of inter-district developmental disparities in Haryana. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 9(2), 983–991. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v9i2.1307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v9i2.1307
Hooda, E., Hooda, B., Manocha, V., & Tanwar, N. (2017). Principal dimensions of regional agricultural and socio-economic disparities in Haryana. Advances in Research, 10(6), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.9734/AIR/2017/34767 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/AIR/2017/34767
Asian Development Bank. (2017). Human capital development in South Asia. https://doi.org/10.22617/TCS179082 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22617/TCS179082
Jana, M., & Sar, N. (2016). Modeling of hotspot detection using cluster outlier analysis and Getis-Ord Gi* statistic of educational development in upper-primary level, India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-016-0122-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-016-0122-x
Maji, K., & Sarkar, S. (2017). Intra-district disparities in primary education: A case study of Bankura District, West Bengal. Space and Culture, India, 4(3), 77–87. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v4i3.214 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v4i3.214
Maniar, K. (2024a). Impact of resource-driven infrastructure optimization on educational outcomes: A study of Indian states (2017–2020). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4992865
Maniar, K. (2024b). Impact of resource-driven infrastructure optimization on educational outcomes: A study of Indian states (2017–2020). SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4991529 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4992865
Motkuri, V. (2005). Educational Development Index based on DISE data for districts of Uttar Pradesh (MPRA Paper 48413). University Library of Munich. https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/48413.html
Naik, M. G., & Sharada, V. (2013). Educational development in Karnataka: Inter-district disparities. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences, 2(10), 26–33.
Nepali, S., Simkhada, P., & Davies, I. (2019). Trends and inequalities in stunting in Nepal: A secondary data analysis of four Nepal demographic health surveys from 2001 to 2016. BMC Nutrition, 5(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-019-0283-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-019-0283-x
Neupane, P. (2017). Barriers to education and school attainment—Evidence from secondary schools in rural Nepal. International Education Studies, 10(2), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n2p68 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n2p68
OECD, European Union, & Joint Research Centre – European Commission. (2008). Handbook on constructing composite indicators: Methodology and user guide. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264043466-en DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264043466-en
Ohlan, R. (2013). Pattern of regional disparities in socio-economic development in India: District-level analysis. Social Indicators Research, 114(3), 841–873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0176-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0176-8
Oliveira, A. F. de, & Ferreira, R. C. (2019). Socio-educational inequality index (SEDII): Instrument for the analysis of regional inequalities. Sociology International Journal, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.15406/sij.2019.03.00162 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15406/sij.2019.03.00162
Raihan, S., & Ahmed, M. (2016). Spatial divergence of primary education development in Bangladesh through the lens of Education Development Index (EDI). MPRA Paper 71177. University Library of Munich. https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:pra:mprapa:71177
Rasool, R., Shafiq, M., Ahmed, P., & Singh, H. (2016). Disparities in the levels of educational development in Jammu and Kashmir, India: A district-wise analysis. International Research Journal of Social Sciences, 5(1), 19–24.
Sah, P., Sah, R., Sahani, S. K., & Sahani, K. (2024). Study and analysis of education system in Nepal and its challenges along with its solution. Deleted Journal, 1(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.58578/mjaei.v1i1.2792 DOI: https://doi.org/10.58578/mjaei.v1i1.2792
Shakya, S., Sharma, G., & Thapa, K. (2018). State education system with e-learning in Nepal: Impact and challenges. Journal of the Institute of Engineering, 13(1), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.3126/jie.v13i1.20344 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/jie.v13i1.20344
Singh, R., & Behl, A. (2019). Block level analysis of regional disparities in educational development in Punjab.
Central Bureau of Statistics. (2003). Population monograph of Nepal 2001. National Planning Commission Secretariat, Government of Nepal.
Central Bureau of Statistics. (2014). Population monograph of Nepal 2011. National Planning Commission Secretariat, Government of Nepal.
Central Bureau of Statistics. (2023). National population and housing census 2021: National report. National Planning Commission Secretariat, Government of Nepal.
Xiang, L., Stillwell, J., Burns, L., & Heppenstall, A. (2019). Measuring and assessing regional education inequalities in China under changing policy regimes. Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy, 13(1), 91–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12061-019-09293-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12061-019-09293-8
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Computational and Experimental Science and Engineering
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
